Self and Personality

Self And Personality

The concepts of 'Self' and 'Personality' are central to understanding human psychology. While closely related, they refer to distinct but interacting aspects of an individual. The Self generally pertains to the idea of who we are, our awareness of ourselves, and how we see ourselves in relation to the world. Personality, on the other hand, refers to the relatively stable patterns of behaviour, thought, and emotion that characterise an individual across different situations and over time.

Our sense of self influences how we behave, and our personality is part of the characteristics we associate with our self. For instance, someone who sees themselves as courageous (aspect of self-concept) might exhibit brave behaviours (aspect of personality) in challenging situations. Similarly, consistent patterns of behaviour (personality) contribute to our understanding of our self.

This chapter will delve into the psychological understanding of the concept of self, its cognitive and behavioural manifestations, how culture shapes it, and then explore the various approaches to studying and assessing personality.

Concept Of Self

The concept of Self is a fundamental aspect of human consciousness. It refers to the organised whole of an individual's beliefs, attitudes, and values regarding oneself. It is a sense of personal identity and uniqueness that distinguishes an individual from others. The Self is not something we are born with fully formed; it develops over time through interactions with the environment and others.

Self As Subject And Self As Object

Philosopher William James distinguished between two aspects of the Self:

1. Self as Subject (The "I"):

This refers to the active agent, the knower, the doer. It is the subjective aspect of self-awareness – the part of us that experiences, thinks, feels, and acts. The "I" is the consciousness that observes and interacts with the world, including the self. It is the stream of consciousness, the awareness of being aware.

2. Self as Object (The "Me"):

This refers to the Self as the known, the observed, the object of reflection. It is the sum of everything a person can call their own – their body, thoughts, emotions, possessions, social roles, reputation, etc. The "Me" is the collection of beliefs and knowledge we have about ourselves, often referred to as the self-concept. We reflect upon and describe our "Me".

The "I" is the subjective experience of being, while the "Me" is the content of our self-knowledge. They are two sides of the same coin, constantly interacting. The "I" observes and processes experiences, which then shape the "Me" (our understanding of ourselves), and the "Me" influences how the "I" perceives and acts in the future.

Kinds Of Self

Based on our interactions and experiences, we develop different kinds of self, or different facets of our self-concept:

1. Personal Self:

This refers to aspects of the self that relate to the individual's unique, personal characteristics and experiences. It includes our personal values, beliefs, goals, traits, and awareness of our physical body. This aspect of self emphasizes individuality and distinctiveness. For example, thinking of oneself as "creative," "funny," or having specific hobbies like painting or reading.

2. Social Self:

This refers to aspects of the self that arise from social interactions and relationships. It includes the roles we play in different social contexts (e.g., student, son/daughter, friend, employee, citizen) and the identities we derive from group memberships (e.g., member of a family, community, religion, nation). This aspect of self emphasizes connectedness and interdependence with others. In India, the social self is often highly salient, defined by family roles, caste, community, and professional identity. For example, identifying oneself as "a member of the Sharma family," "a resident of Delhi," or "a follower of Hinduism."

These two aspects of self are not mutually exclusive and often overlap and influence each other. Our personal traits shape how we enact social roles, and our social experiences influence our personal beliefs and identity. The relative emphasis on the personal versus the social self can vary across cultures (see Section I4).

Cognitive And Behavioural Aspects Of Self

Our concept of self is not just a static image; it involves dynamic cognitive processes (how we think about ourselves) and behavioural manifestations (how our self-concept influences our actions).

Self-esteem

Self-esteem refers to an individual's overall evaluation of their own worth or value. It is the degree to which we like or dislike ourselves. Self-esteem is a subjective judgement and can be high (positive self-evaluation) or low (negative self-evaluation).

Factors Influencing Self-esteem:

• Childhood Experiences: Parental warmth, acceptance, and consistent discipline generally foster higher self-esteem. Criticism, rejection, or neglect can lead to lower self-esteem.
• Competence and Achievement: Success in areas that are important to the individual contributes to higher self-esteem. Repeated failures can lower it.
• Social Comparisons: Comparing oneself to others can impact self-esteem. Upward comparisons (to those perceived as better) can lower it, while downward comparisons (to those perceived as worse) can sometimes boost it, though constant comparison is generally detrimental.
• Peer and Social Support: Feeling accepted and valued by friends, family, and community members is crucial for maintaining healthy self-esteem.

High self-esteem is generally associated with positive outcomes, such as greater confidence, resilience, academic success, and better relationships. Low self-esteem can be linked to anxiety, depression, fear of failure, and difficulty forming healthy relationships.

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in their ability to successfully perform a specific task or achieve a particular outcome. It is a judgement of one's capabilities to organise and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations. Developed by Albert Bandura as part of his Social Cognitive Theory.

Sources of Self-efficacy Beliefs:

• Mastery Experiences: Successfully performing a task strengthens self-efficacy ("I did it before, I can do it again"). Failure weakens it.
• Vicarious Experiences: Observing others successfully perform a task can increase one's own self-efficacy, especially if the model is perceived as similar to oneself.
• Verbal Persuasion: Encouragement and positive feedback from others ("You can do it!") can boost self-efficacy.
• Physiological and Emotional States: Interpreting physical sensations (like nervousness) as signs of anxiety or weakness can lower self-efficacy, while interpreting them as excitement can increase it.

High self-efficacy in a particular domain motivates individuals to attempt challenging tasks, persist in the face of difficulties, and perform better. Low self-efficacy can lead to avoidance of challenges and giving up easily.

Answer:

Self-regulation

Self-regulation refers to the ability to control one's thoughts, emotions, and behaviours in pursuit of long-term goals. It involves setting goals, planning, inhibiting impulses, managing emotions, and monitoring progress. It is sometimes referred to as self-control or willpower.

Components of Self-regulation:

• Goal Setting: Establishing clear objectives.
• Planning: Developing strategies to achieve goals.
• Self-Monitoring: Tracking one's behaviour and progress towards goals.
• Self-Correction: Adjusting strategies when needed.
• Impulse Control: Resisting immediate temptations or urges that conflict with long-term goals.
• Emotional Regulation: Managing feelings so they don't derail goal pursuit.

Strong self-regulation is associated with academic success, better health, improved relationships, and greater overall well-being. It is a skill that develops over time and can be strengthened through practice and specific techniques (e.g., planning, delayed gratification exercises). For instance, choosing to study for an exam instead of watching TV is an act of self-regulation.

Self-esteem, self-efficacy, and self-regulation are interconnected aspects of the self that significantly influence individual behaviour and psychological adjustment.

Culture And Self

The concept of the self is not universal; it is profoundly shaped by the cultural context in which an individual develops. Culture influences how individuals define themselves, their relationship with others, and their place in the world.

Independent vs. Interdependent Self-Construal

Psychologists like Hazel Markus and Shinobu Kitayama have highlighted a key dimension along which cultural concepts of self vary:

1. Independent Self-Construal:

Prominent in many Western, individualistic cultures (e.g., parts of North America, Western Europe). The self is seen as a bounded, unique entity, distinct from others. Emphasis is placed on personal attributes, independence, self-reliance, and achieving personal goals. Behaviour is understood as stemming from internal traits and preferences. The boundary between the self and others is relatively clear and firm.

2. Interdependent Self-Construal:

Prominent in many East Asian, South Asian (including India), African, and Latin American cultures (collectivistic cultures). The self is seen as fundamentally connected to others and embedded within social relationships and contexts. Emphasis is placed on roles, relationships, social harmony, fulfilling duties and obligations, and group goals. Behaviour is understood as being influenced by social expectations and the needs of the group. The boundary between the self and others is more fluid and permeable.

These different self-construals influence various psychological processes, including:

• Cognition: People with interdependent selves may pay more attention to context and relationships when processing information.
• Motivation: Independent selves are often motivated by personal achievement, while interdependent selves may be more motivated by fulfilling social obligations and maintaining group harmony.
• Emotion: The experience and expression of emotions can differ. For example, emotions that maintain social harmony might be emphasised in interdependent cultures.

Culture and Self in India

Indian culture generally fosters a more interdependent concept of the self compared to many Western cultures.

• The emphasis on family ties (samyukta parivar or joint family concept, although evolving), community, and social roles is central to identity. One's identity is often defined in relation to others (e.g., "son/daughter of...", "member of... caste/community").
• Concepts like dharma (duty) and karma (actions and consequences) influence self-perception and behaviour, linking individual actions to broader social and cosmic orders.
• Respect for elders and authority figures is deeply ingrained, reflecting the importance of hierarchy and social roles.
• While personal achievement is valued, it is often seen within the context of contributing to the family's or community's welfare.

However, with increasing urbanisation, globalisation, and exposure to Western media, there are also signs of increasing emphasis on individual aspirations and a blending of independent and interdependent self-construals, particularly among younger generations in urban India.

Understanding the cultural context is essential for interpreting an individual's self-concept and behaviour.

Concept Of Personality

Personality refers to the relatively stable pattern of psychological characteristics, including thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, that distinguish an individual. It is what makes each person unique and accounts for consistency in behaviour across different situations and over time.

Key aspects of personality include:

• Consistency: Personality traits tend to be relatively consistent across different situations (e.g., someone described as "extraverted" is likely to be outgoing at work and at parties).
• Stability: Personality traits tend to remain relatively stable over the lifespan, although subtle changes can occur, particularly in response to major life events.
• Distinctiveness: Personality describes what makes one person different from others (e.g., some are more anxious, others more relaxed).
• Organisation: Personality is not just a random collection of traits; it is an organised whole.

Personality influences how individuals interact with the world, make decisions, and respond to challenges. It is shaped by a complex interplay of genetic predispositions (nature), environmental experiences (nurture), and their interaction. Understanding personality is a primary goal of psychology, leading to various theories explaining its structure, development, and dynamics.

Major Approaches To The Study Of Personality

Psychologists have developed various theoretical approaches to understand the complex nature of personality. These approaches offer different perspectives on what constitutes personality, how it develops, and how it influences behaviour.

Type Approaches

Type approaches attempt to classify individuals into discrete categories or types based on broad patterns of characteristics. Early examples linked personality types to body build or temperament.

Examples:

• Hippocrates: Proposed four temperaments based on bodily fluids (humours): Sanguine (cheerful), Phlegmatic (calm), Choleric (irritable), Melancholic (sad).
• Sheldon: Linked personality to somatotypes (body types): Endomorphic (round, soft - associated with relaxed, sociable temperament), Mesomorphic (muscular, athletic - associated with active, assertive temperament), Ectomorphic (thin, fragile - associated with quiet, intellectual temperament). These links have largely been discredited.
• Carl Jung: Proposed personality types based on psychological functions and attitudes: Introversion vs. Extraversion, Sensing vs. Intuition, Thinking vs. Feeling (used in the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator).
• Type A and Type B Personality: Friedman and Rosenman described Type A as characterised by competitiveness, impatience, hostility, and urgency (linked to heart disease risk), and Type B as relaxed, patient, and non-competitive.

Type approaches provide simple categories but often oversimplify the complexity of personality, as individuals rarely fit neatly into a single type.

Trait Approaches

Trait approaches view personality as a combination of specific psychological traits. Traits are seen as relatively stable predispositions to behave in a certain way. These approaches use statistical methods, like factor analysis, to identify underlying dimensions of personality.

Examples:

• Gordon Allport: Distinguished between cardinal traits (dominant, define a person's life), central traits (major characteristics, 5-10 per person), and secondary traits (less consistent, situational).
• Raymond Cattell: Identified 16 source traits (underlying personality dimensions) using factor analysis, which he measured with the 16 Personality Factor (16PF) Questionnaire.
• Hans Eysenck: Proposed three major dimensions: Extraversion-Introversion, Neuroticism-Emotional Stability, and Psychoticism-Superego Function. He believed these dimensions had a strong biological basis.
• The Five-Factor Model (Big Five): The most widely accepted trait model today. Identifies five broad dimensions:
  • Openness to Experience: Imaginative, curious, independent vs. practical, routine-oriented, conforming.
  • Conscientiousness: Organised, careful, disciplined vs. disorganised, careless, impulsive.
  • Extraversion: Sociable, fun-loving, energetic vs. retiring, sober, reserved.
  • Agreeableness: Soft-hearted, trusting, helpful vs. ruthless, suspicious, uncooperative.
  • Neuroticism: Anxious, insecure, self-pitying vs. calm, secure, self-satisfied.
  Individuals are rated on a continuum for each trait.

Trait approaches are supported by considerable research and provide a framework for describing and measuring personality dimensions, but they sometimes offer less insight into how personality develops or the underlying psychological processes.

Psychodynamic Approach

Originating with Sigmund Freud, this approach emphasises the influence of unconscious psychological processes, early childhood experiences, and internal conflicts on personality development.

Key Concepts (Freud):

• Structure of Personality: Id (instinctual drives, pleasure principle), Ego (reality principle, mediates between Id and Superego), Superego (moral component, internalised societal rules).
• Levels of Consciousness: Conscious, Preconscious, Unconscious. The unconscious holds repressed thoughts and desires that influence behaviour.
• Psychosexual Stages: Freud proposed a series of stages (Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital) during which pleasure is focused on different erogenous zones. Fixation at a stage due to unresolved conflict was thought to impact adult personality.
• Defence Mechanisms: Unconscious strategies used by the Ego to reduce anxiety caused by conflicts between the Id, Ego, and Superego (e.g., repression, denial, projection, rationalisation).

Later psychodynamic theorists (e.g., Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson) modified or expanded upon Freud's ideas, often placing less emphasis on sexual drives and more on social factors or the whole lifespan. Psychodynamic theories have been influential in therapy but are often criticised for being difficult to test empirically and for their negative view of human nature.

Behavioural Approach

Behavioural approaches view personality as learned patterns of behaviour acquired through interaction with the environment. They focus on observable behaviours and the processes of learning.

Key Concepts:

• Classical Conditioning (Pavlov): Learning through association (e.g., developing phobias).
• Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Learning through consequences (rewards and punishments). Personality is seen as a collection of reinforced response tendencies.
• Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura): Emphasises observational learning (learning by watching others), reciprocal determinism (interaction between behaviour, environment, and cognitive factors), and self-efficacy. Personality is shaped by observing and imitating models and by beliefs about one's own capabilities.

Behavioural approaches are scientifically testable and highlight the role of environment and learning, but they are sometimes criticised for neglecting internal thoughts and feelings and biological influences.

Cultural Approach

This approach highlights the significant role of culture in shaping personality. It argues that personality is not just an individual phenomenon but is deeply embedded within and influenced by cultural norms, values, practices, and socialisation processes.

• Culture provides the context for personality development, defining acceptable behaviours, desired traits, and social roles.
• Differences in concepts of self (independent vs. interdependent) illustrate how culture shapes fundamental aspects of personality.
• Cultural practices related to child-rearing, education, and social interaction transmit personality-relevant traits and values. For example, cultures that value collectivism might foster traits like cooperativeness and loyalty more strongly than those that value individualism.

This approach is crucial for understanding personality variations across different societies and for avoiding imposing concepts from one culture onto another. (See Section I4 for more on Culture and Self/Personality).

Humanistic Approach

Humanistic psychology, pioneered by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, focuses on the individual's subjective experience, free will, potential for growth, and inherent drive towards self-actualisation. It offers a more optimistic view of human nature compared to psychodynamic theories.

Key Concepts:

• Self-Actualisation (Maslow): The innate drive to fulfil one's potential and become the best version of oneself. Personality development involves moving towards this goal.
• Client-Centered Therapy (Rogers): Emphasises the importance of the self-concept and the conditions necessary for psychological growth: Unconditional Positive Regard (acceptance without judgment), Empathy (understanding another's perspective), and Genuineness (being real and authentic). Incongruence between the real self and the ideal self (who one wishes to be) leads to psychological distress.
• Subjective Experience: Emphasis on the individual's unique perception and interpretation of the world.

Humanistic approaches highlight the positive aspects of personality and the potential for personal growth, influencing therapy and positive psychology. However, they are sometimes criticised for being abstract, difficult to measure empirically, and potentially overly optimistic.

Assessment Of Personality

Personality assessment involves measuring personality traits, types, and dynamics. Psychologists use various methods depending on their theoretical orientation and the purpose of the assessment.

Self-report Measures

These are the most common methods, where individuals provide information about themselves, usually by answering questionnaires or rating scales. They assume individuals can accurately report on their own thoughts, feelings, and behaviours.

Examples:

• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): A widely used test assessing various personality traits and clinical scales (e.g., depression, anxiety, schizophrenia). Uses True/False format.
• Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ): Measures Eysenck's dimensions of Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism.
• NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R): Measures the Five-Factor Model (Big Five) traits and their facets.
• 16 Personality Factor (16PF) Questionnaire: Measures Cattell's 16 source traits.

Advantages:

• Relatively easy and quick to administer and score.
• Can collect data from many people.
• Often have good reliability and validity (when properly constructed).

Disadvantages:

• Prone to response biases (e.g., social desirability bias, faking good or bad).
• Requires self-awareness and honesty from the test-taker.
• May not capture the complexity of personality.

In India, several self-report measures have been adapted or developed to be culturally appropriate, though challenges remain in ensuring universal applicability.

Projective Techniques

Based on the psychodynamic assumption that unconscious thoughts and feelings can be "projected" onto ambiguous stimuli. Individuals are presented with vague or unstructured material and asked to interpret it. The way they interpret the stimuli is thought to reveal underlying aspects of their personality.

Examples:

• Rorschach Inkblot Test: Developed by Hermann Rorschach. Individuals are shown a series of symmetrical inkblots and asked what they see. Responses are analysed based on content, location (where on the blot the response was seen), determinants (form, colour, shading), and originality.
• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Developed by Henry Murray and Christina Morgan. Individuals are shown ambiguous pictures depicting scenes (often involving people) and asked to tell a story about each picture (what is happening, what led up to it, what the characters are thinking/feeling, what will happen next). Responses are analysed for recurring themes, motives, and interpersonal dynamics.
• Sentence Completion Test: Individuals are given incomplete sentences and asked to finish them.
• Draw-a-Person Test: Individuals are asked to draw a person. Aspects of the drawing (size, detail, features) are interpreted.

Advantages:

• May reveal unconscious aspects of personality.
• Less susceptible to conscious faking compared to self-reports.
• Can provide rich qualitative data.

Disadvantages:

• Scoring and interpretation are highly subjective and require extensive training.
• Lower reliability and validity compared to self-report measures.
• Controversial and debated in terms of their scientific validity.

Projective techniques are used more often in clinical and counselling settings in India.

Behavioural Analysis

Focuses on directly observing and recording an individual's behaviour in various situations. It aligns with behavioural approaches to personality.

Methods:

• Observation: Systematic observation of behaviour in natural settings (e.g., home, school, workplace) or controlled laboratory settings. This can involve frequency counts, duration recording, or behavioural rating scales.
• Situational Tests: Creating simulated situations to observe how individuals behave under specific conditions (e.g., assessing teamwork or leadership skills in a group task).
• Interview: Observing verbal and non-verbal behaviour during an interview.

Advantages:

• Provides objective data on actual behaviour, not just self-reports.
• Useful for assessing specific skills or behaviours.

Disadvantages:

• Behaviour may not be representative if the individual knows they are being observed (Hawthorne effect).
• Time-consuming and labour-intensive.
• Difficult to capture subtle or internal psychological states.

In India, behavioural analysis might be used in specific contexts like clinical assessments, school observations for behavioural issues, or in selection processes for certain jobs.

A comprehensive personality assessment often involves using a combination of these methods to get a more complete picture of the individual.